Vol. 29 No. 1 (2026) Cover Image
Vol. 29 No. 1 (2026)

Published: March 20, 2026

Pages: 152-173

Original Article

Automation in loading/unloading semi-knockdown vehicles in assembly plants for intelligent navigation

Adeyinka Oluwo 1 Muhiz Ambali 1 Sunday Ayoola Oke 1 Henry Omoregbe 1 Bayo Ogunmola 1 David Livingstone 1 Francis Onoroh 1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria.
History
  • Received: October 7, 2025
  • Revised: January 14, 2026
  • Accepted: January 23, 2026
  • Available Online: March 20, 2026
DOI

https://doi.org/10.29194/NJES.29010152

Abstract

Manual handling of semi-knockdown vehicles in assembly plants is unsafe, time-consuming, inefficient, and prone to quality irregularities. To intervene in addressing these problems, this study develops a prototype of an automated load carrier intelligent navigator. The work centre is analysed for space, material type and handling requirements. This is followed by design and testing, whereby software, hardware and mechanical engineering are integrated in the context of process optimisation. The prototype was tested on rough and smooth surfaces, for no-obstacle and obstacle avoidance conditions. On rough and smooth surfaces with no obstacles, the minimum distance considered is 0.5m, and the average speed and time determined are 0.08m/s and 6.23s, 0.17m/s and 2.97s, respectively. For the maximum distance of 3.0m, the average speeds and times determined are 0.081 m/s and 37.42s, and 0.18 m/s and 17.35s, respectively. The average distance considered for both rough and smooth surfaces is 1.75 m, and the average speed and time at each scenario are 0.081 m/s, 21.78s, and 0.17 m/s, 10.26s. The voltage of the battery drops, with a corresponding decrease in the speed of the motors. The automated carrier prototype makes the best decisions when it encounters an obstacle, giving the best outputs. This paper contributes by providing real-time intelligent navigation data and accurate regulation of the automated carrier for automotive assembly plants. Its novelty lies in conducting experimental investigations using the automated loading/unloading intelligent navigator to explore its advantages compared to manual loading/unloading in automotive assembly plants. In conclusion, building a carrier for assembly operations enhances assembly operational performance, correcting inefficient and unsafe loading and unloading processes.

Keywords

References

  1. J. Christian and G. Jochen, "How to load your auto carrier: a hybrid packing approach for the auto‑carrier loading problem," Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 315, pp. 1167-1181, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2024.01.001
  2. A. Saikumar, P. Pranay, N. Sarvigari, N. Sai Kumar, and G. Vikram, "Design and fabrication of compact load carrier," Int. J. Res. Publ. Rev., vol. 6, pp. 8310-8318, 2025.
  3. K. P. Devesh, S. Tushar, R. Suraj, and V. K. Ojha, "Ergonomic design of multipurpose load carriers: a comprehensive review," Int. J. All Res. Educ. Sci. Methods., vol. 11, pp. 2639-2644, 2023.
  4. K. Karthik and N. Rakesh, "Autonomous load carrier," UCPH Res. Portal, p. 3, 2020.
  5. C. Valentin, C. David, V. H. Edwin, D. Stijn, and V. Thierry, "Automation in cargo loading/unloading processes: do unmanned loading technologies bring benefits when both purchase and operational cost are considered?," J. Shipp. Trd., vol. 8, p. 20, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41072-023-00146-9
  6. O. Esan and J. Ajilore, "Design, fabrication and evaluation of an autonomous guided vehicle with a unit load carrier," Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res., vol. 10, Article 13140, 2020.
  7. K. S. Reethya, "Design and development of a plant watering robot using Arduino microcontroller," Int. J. Sci. Res. Eng. Manag., vol. 10, Article 55041, 2024.
  8. A. Muazu, S. Abdulkadir, and A. Abdulrazaq, "Design and construction of a low‑cost autonomous firefighting robot using Bluetooth module and Arduino," Global J. Res. Eng. Comput. Sci., vol. 10, Article 5281, 2024.
  9. I. N. Mukthar, A. B. Muhammad, and A. Shehu, "Simulation of obstacle avoidance robots," Middle East Res. J. Eng. Technol., vol. 3, pp. 66-74, 2023. https://doi.org/10.36348/merjet.2023.v03i05.003
  10. K. G. Danladi, A. B. Muhammad, A. Hussein, and A. S. Nuhu, "Drawbacks of employing self‑driving automobiles," IPHO‑J. Adv. Res. Sci. Eng., vol. 2, Mar. 2024.
  11. A. B. Muhammad, "The several uses for obstacle‑avoidance robots," Global J. Res. Eng. Comput. Sci., vol. 3, pp. 11-17, 2023.
  12. Z. Anye, L. Yongyang, T. Einat, and A. Shubham, "Car‑following behavior of human‑driven vehicles in mixed‑flow traffic: a driving simulator study," IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh., vol. 8, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIV.2023.3257962
  13. N. Konda, V. K. Naveen, and Y. S. Padma, "Real‑time traffic signs and obstacle detection in self‑driving car," Int. J. Innov. Technol. Explor. Eng., vol. 10, Article 35940, 2020.
  14. A. F. Faysal, R. Asef, I. Amirul, and A. Ajmy, "Arduino‑controlled multi‑function robot with Bluetooth and NRF24L01+ communication," IJRCS, vol. 4, pp. 1353-1381, 2024. https://doi.org/10.31763/ijrcs.v4i3.1517
  15. A. B. Muhammad and I. B. Mukthar, "Elements needed to implement the obstacle‑avoidance robots," GJRECS, vol. 3, pp. 18-27, 2023.
  16. U. Faikul, M. Fuad, S. Iswanto, and M. Alfian, "Obstacle avoidance based on stereo vision navigation system for omni‑directional system," JRC, vol. 4, Apr. 2023. https://doi.org/10.18196/jrc.v4i2.17977
  17. F. Morariu, M. Timotei, and R. Sever‑Gabriel, "Mobile robot vision navigation strategy based on Pixy2 camera," Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 10, Article 1016, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.04.327
  18. T. Nuntachai and C. Phichitphon, "Design and construction of electric wheelchair with mecanum wheels," JRC, vol. 4, pp. 71-82, Jan. 2023. https://doi.org/10.18196/jrc.v4i1.17095
  19. U. N. Akhtar, S. Saifullah, and A. N. Raheel, "Design and implementation of force sensation and feedback systems for telepresence robotic arms," JRC, vol. 3, Sept. 2022. https://doi.org/10.18196/jrc.v3i5.15959
  20. S. Kolapo, O. O. Moses, O. A. Solomon, M. A. Ogunlade, C. M. Anthony, A. Oladimeji, and O. D. Samuel, "Development of an Arduino‑based obstacle avoidance robotic system for an unmanned vehicle," ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci., vol. 13, 2018.
  21. N. Chidvilasini, M. P. Giri, L. S. Lalith, and S. S. Vivek, "Arduino‑based ultrasonic distance measurement and analysis system," IJERT, vol. 14, Aug. 2025.
  22. A. Wadea, M. G. Atef, M. Rafeek, and A. Abdulaziz, "Evaluating instructional format and performance metrics in manual assembly task," J. Work., vol. 10, Article 1177, 2025.
  23. L. Ruimin and L. Yanjiao, "Geometry accuracy of carriers in automobile assembly workshop and its check methods," J. Mech. Sci. Technol., vol. 38, pp. 6841-6846, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12206-024-1135-4
  24. T. Amirreza, "A unified MILP for choosing between line stocking, manual kitting, and hybrid human‑robot kitting in car assembly," vol. 10, Article 13140, 2025.
  25. W. Manuel, S. Daniel, K. Alexander, M. Philipp, P. Corina, and Z. Helmut, "The integration of smart systems in the context of industrial logistics in manufacturing enterprises," Procedia Comput. Sci., vol. 200, pp. 727-737, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2022.01.271
  26. S. Prathamesh, S. P. Chaitanya, S. S. Ganesh, and S. P. Srishti, "Transforming MSME assembly operations: smart manual assembly table for improved productivity," IJBAS, vol. 10, pp. 40-51, 2025. https://doi.org/10.14419/am35a906
  27. J. Ish, "Actual and contractual carriers," vol. 10, p. 12, 2025.
  28. E. O. Lois, "Prevalence of work‑related musculoskeletal disorders among male manual material handling in markets across Port Harcourt metropolis," TRESJ, vol. 17, 2025.
  29. B. Khan, N. Sehrish, N. H. Kazi, N. Saad, and N. Sarwat, "A prototype of obstacle avoidance for autonomous vehicle," Iraqi J. Sci., vol. 63, pp. 2203-2210, 2022. https://doi.org/10.24996/ijs.2022.63.5.33
  30. E. Gernot, V. Rien, L. Stefan, H. Hunter, S. Raffaele, P. Rodolfo, P. Thomas, and S. Karl, "Advances in cable yarding: a review of recent developments in carriers for mobile skyline cable yarding," Curr. For. Rep., vol. 11, Article 14, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-025-00246-8
  31. R. Andrea, D. Pierpaolo, and B. Francesco, "Prototyping of automated guided vehicles for teaching practical mechatronics," Educ. Sci., vol. 15, Article 3390, 2025. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15030294
  32. P. Thibault, A. Nabil, B. Valeria, and C. Diego, "Optimization of human‑aware logistics and manufacturing systems: a survey on the human‑aware models," Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 13, Article 100137, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtl.2024.100137
  33. P. Thibault, A. Nabil, B. Valeria, and C. Diego, "Optimization of human‑aware logistics and manufacturing systems: a comprehensive review of modeling approaches and applications," Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 13, Article 100136, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtl.2024.100136
  34. A. L. Simon and N. M. Munashe, "Innovative approaches to enhancing logistics for adapting to the evolving demands of manufacturing companies in East Africa through improved lean strategies," WJARR, vol. 23, Article 30574, 2024. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.23.3.2840
  35. S. Kazemi and S. Gentes, "Development of robot system as a tool‑carrier machine for the decontamination process of nuclear power plants," SaND, vol. 16, pp. 52-54, 2025, 5th IFSA Winter Conf. Automation, Robotics & Commun. Industry 4.0/5.0 (ARCI'2025), Granada, Spain, Feb. 19-21, 2025.
  36. T. Thierry and V. Sri Sudha, "Augmented reality for quality inspection, assembly and remote assistance in manufacturing," Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 232, pp. 533-543, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2024.01.053